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Article

Investigation of Durability Properties for Lightweight Structural Concrete with Hemp Shives Instead of Aggregate

by
Elżbieta Horszczaruk
1,*,
Jarosław Strzałkowski
1,
Anna Głowacka
1,
Oliwia Paszkiewicz
2 and
Agata Markowska-Szczupak
2
1
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, al. Piastów 50a, 70-311 Szczecin, Poland
2
Faculty of Chemical Technology and Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Piastow Ave. 42, 71-065 Szczecin, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(14), 8447; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13148447
Submission received: 14 June 2023 / Revised: 18 July 2023 / Accepted: 20 July 2023 / Published: 21 July 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Construction Materials: Characterization, Structure and Durability)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The paper presents the results of testing the performance of lightweight structural concrete containing hemp shives as an aggregate. It has been analysed how the higher binder content and use of the Portland cement affect the thermal and microbiological properties of the lightweight concrete. The aggregates of the plant origin and cement are incompatible because the plant chemical compounds, dissolved in water or an alkaline environment, inhibit cement hydration. To avoid this, mineralisation of the aggregates of plant origin is necessary. The most often used binder in hemp concrete is hydrated lime, a mineraliser. An addition of hydrated lime and sodium trisilicate was used for hemp shiv mineralisation in the tested materials with a cement binder. Concrete containing hemp shiv and cement binder, of which volume share in the concrete was at most 15%, was prepared as a reference concrete. In the remaining three concretes, the total content of the binder in relation to hemp shiv (by mass) was increased 2.5 times. It was shown that lime-binder hemp concrete offers a promising antimicrobial strategy, as it can inhibit bacterial and fungal growth on their surface with superior efficacy. The best results were obtained for tested concretes with the cement–lime binder regarding compressive strength; the average compressive strength was 9.56 MPa.

1. Introduction

The materials of biological origin, used as a replacement for the natural aggregate in cement-based and lime-based composites, can help reduce the construction industry’s negative impact on the environment [1]. An example of the aggregate of biological origin is hemp shive, derived from the fragmentation of the ligneous core of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.). It is a by-product of hemp processing [2]. Because of the porous structure, the hemp shives are light, have good acoustic properties [3,4], good thermal insulating properties [5,6], and high ability for carbon dioxide sequestration [7,8,9].
The most developed building material based on hemp shives is lime–hemp concrete (LHC). LHC is a lime–hemp composite created by combining the hydraulic and non-hydraulic lime with the aggregate containing mainly hemp shives with a small number of hemp fibres or hemp shives alone. The length of the hemp shive particles is 5–40 mm [10]. LHC has good insulating properties; its thermal transmittance is 0.08 to 0.16 W m−1 K−1 for the apparent density at a dry state between 300 and 670 kg/m3 [11,12,13]. However, its LHC strength is low compared to that of the other building materials. The compressive strength of LHC does not exceed 2 MPa [14,15,16]. For LHC to achieve the strength of 10 MPa, it requires a very high content of the binder (up to 700 kg/m3) or high compaction (compaction ratio up to 4.5) [17].
Hemp concrete (HC) production investigations can be categorised regarding the binder type and share of the hemp shives in the concrete mix. Various binders were used for hemp concrete manufacturing, like ordinary Portland cement (OPC) [18,19,20,21], a combination of lime and cement [20,21,22], binders containing zeolite [20], magnesium cement [20], magnesium phosphate cement [23], and the alkali-activated cement binders [24,25,26,27]. The research described in [27] has confirmed that increasing hemp shives content in the concrete mix worsens the compressive strength with the same binder content. Pressing LHC elements allows for the production of insulating boards and hollow bricks that fill walls with a wooden frame or serve as insulation for roofs and ceilings [1,22]. Due to the low load capacity, the LHC is used only with specially designed load-bearing structures or pillars, most often made of softwood [22].
Using the aggregate of the biological origin in the building materials requires protection against bacteria and fungi. Such protection in LHC is ensured by the lime used as a binder [21]. The antibacterial activity of hemp has many applications. It is used in medicine (e.g., drugs and wound dressings, medical devices, implants, or prostheses made from hemp polymer composites), cosmetics, clothing and textiles, food packaging, and food storage [28,29]. In recent years, building materials containing antimicrobial additives have aroused great interest among technologists and scientists [30]. With this approach, the reduction of mould and bacteria is achievable. It is worth noting that antimicrobial protection is easily accessible during manufacturing. Due to long-term protection against microorganisms and their metabolites (e.g., mycotoxins), these materials can be helpful in the creation of cleaner indoor environments.
The research objective was to obtain hemp concrete with a compressive strength close to the lightweight concrete of LC8/9 class (according to the European Standard EN-206 [31]). To achieve this aim, two binders were used for concrete production: Portland cement and hydrated lime. Based on the literature data, the limit volume of the binder in the composite has been accepted as 50%. The hemp shives, obtained from the Polish variety of industrial hemp, were used as an aggregate with a grain size from 0.5 to 16 mm. Besides the composites’ basic mechanical properties, the changes in the thermal and microbiological properties were analysed. The heavy metals content in the hemp shives was determined, and the effect of the water glass on the microbiological protection of the hardened cement concrete was investigated. The latter studies are novel approaches to using hemp as a substitute for the aggregate in structural concrete.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

Hemp shiv (HS), obtained from the Polish variety of industrial hemp (Podlaskie Konopie S.A., Dobrzyniówka, Poland) intended for fibres, was used as an aggregate in hemp concretes (HC) manufacturing. After drying and dust extraction, the product was obtained in the form of hemp shiv sold as horse litter and aggregate for hemp concrete (Figure 1).
After drying, dedusting and sieving of HS, the vegetable aggregate has been obtained with the following grain size distribution: fraction 0.5–2 mm—25%, the fraction 2–4 mm—8.7%, the fraction 4–8 mm—65%, and the fraction 8–16 mm—1.3% of the total HS mass. The bulk density corresponding to the shives packing at rest without compaction was determined in the steel container with a volume of 1 dm3. The average bulk density of the used HS was 98 kg/m3. The SEM analysis of the shives has confirmed their fibrous and porous structure (Figure 2). The pores have two different sizes: the bigger pores with the ellipsoidal shape (marked as 1) have a size up to 100 mm, and the second (marked as 2) are, on average, four times smaller in diameter.
Two types of binder were used to prepare HC: hydrate lime and Portland cement. The hydrated lime of the class CL 90-S has been received (Trzuskawica ACRH Company, Nowiny, Poland). According to the producer’s data, it contains 84% hydrated lime Ca(OH)2. The declared bulk density of the binder was 410 kg/m3. The Portland cement CEM I 42.5 R (Górażdże Cement S.A., Chorula, Poland) with a specific density of 3110 kg/m3 used in HC. A sodium water glass (sodium trisilicate solution)—ST (Warchem S.A., Warsaw, Poland) was used with a cement binder for 2% of the total water to mineralise HS. A superplasticiser (SP) MasterGelnium ACE 435 (Master Builders Solutions, Myślenice, Poland), containing carboxylic polyether, was added to improve the HC mixes’ workability.

2.2. Mixture Composition and Forming Specimens

Based on the empirical formulae and measurements reported in [32], a reference concrete mix (HC0) was prepared in the laboratory mixer UEZ ZM50 (Testing, Berlin, Germany). The HCS volume in HC0 was about 20%. Based on the research described in [17,27], the binder content was increased to 50% in the following three concrete mixes. The first concrete, HC1, contained only the lime binder; the second concrete, HC2, contained 40% of lime and 60% of cement (by mass); the third concrete, HC3, contained only the cement binder. The workability of the HC concrete mixes was improved by adding the superplasticiser (SP) containing the polycarboxylic ether. The water glass was added as a mineraliser to the concrete mixes containing only cement binder. The components’ proportions and volume densities of the tested composites are presented in Table 1.
The cubic specimens with 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm and 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm were prepared for the mechanical and thermal tests. The hemp shives were stirred in the laboratory mixer for 1 min to break the agglomerates. Then, 1/3 of the total amount of water was added and mixed for the next 3 min. The binder was added and mixed for another minute, and then the rest of the water was added (together with the superplasticiser in the case of the cement mixes) and mixed for 2 min. The prepared concrete mix was poured into the moulds and compacted. The specimens were demoulded after 48 h. They were then stored in the climate chamber at a relative humidity of 80% and a temperature of 20 ± 2 °C for the next 26 days. At the age of 28 days, the specimens were tested.

2.3. Methods

The heavy metal content in the HS was determined by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). The content of Cr, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Cd has been determined using an iCE 3500 spectrometer (Thermo Scientific, Bremen, Germany) with a detectability of 0.0033 ppm. Before testing, the specimens were vacuum filtered using PTFE 0.45 μm filter and buffered with hydrochloric acid to pH = 2. The pH was measured in a water solution of the HS and concrete samples using a Hach HQ40d pH meter with PHC 301 electrode. The electric conductivity was determined by a potentiometric method using the conductometer. The specimens were ground in the mortar and immersed in the distilled water. The content of organic substances in HS and HC was determined according to the standard ISO 14688-2 at the temperature of 650 °C.
The HC specimens for the thermal testing were prepared from earlier manufactured cubes with the size 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm. The specimens were then cut in half. Thermal measurements were conducted on the exposed cores of the specimens after cutting. The tested HC specimens were stored in dry laboratory conditions until their masses were stabilised. The thermal conductivity was determined via the non-stationary method using the apparatus Isomet 2104. The measurements were carried out for each HC in the middle sections. Four cubes with a size of 100 mm were used for thermal tests of each HC. Two measurements were performed for each surface of the tested specimen; thus, eight measurements of thermal properties were carried out for each HC. The thermal conductivity, volumetric specific heat, and thermal diffusivity coefficient were determined. The average values, standard deviations, and coefficients of variation were calculated. Very high repeatability of the results has been achieved. The coefficients of variation for the thermal conductivity did not exceed 5% for all tested materials.
The compressive strength of HC was tested on the dry specimens after 28 days of curing. The tests were performed on the testing machine (Toni Technik, Berlin, Germany) with a maximum load of 100 kN. Compressive strength HC was tested on cubes with dimensions of 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm. The strength was determined with an accuracy of 0.1 MPa.
The antimicrobial properties of HC against Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli K12 (ATCC 29425) and Gram-positive bacteria Staphyloccocus epidermidis (ATCC 49461) and mould fungi—Aspergillus niger (strain N2 from Faculty of Chemical Technology and Engineering collection)— isolated from the air were determined. The model bacteria were cultivated in nutrient broth (NB, BioMaxima, Poland) for E. coli and Brain–Heart Infusion (BHI, BioMaxima, Poland) for S. epidermidis and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. The bacterial cells were centrifuged at 5000 g at 25 °C for 10 min and resuspended in sterile 0.85% sodium saline buffer to the final concentration of 0.5 in McFarland standard (bioMérieux, France) and concentration approx. 1 × 108 CFU/mL (working solution). Aspergillus niger was cultured aerobically on MEA (Merck, Germany) slants at 25 °C for 72 h (or until they reached total growth). The fungal spores were suspended in sterile water, and the concentrations were adjusted to 0.5 in McFarland standard. The experiments were prepared according to [33], with some modifications. A total of 1 mL of bacterial or fungal working solutions diluted 100 times were pipetted proportionally onto a 5 g (±0.01 g) hemp concrete specimen sterilised under a UV lamp for 15 min. All specimens were placed in a sterilised quartz Petri dish to prevent drying. Every 15 min, the cell suspension was collected by washing the sample with 20 mL of sterile 0.85% sodium saline buffer solution. Then, serial dilutions of the collected cell suspension were appropriately performed. First, 0.25 mL of diluted suspension was spread on Standard Plate Count Agar (PCA) for E. coli, Brain–Heart Infusion Agar (BHI) for S. epidermidis and MEA for A. niger. Then, the plates were incubated at 37 °C for 12 h for bacteria and 25 °C for 72 h for fungi. Three replicate plates were used for each incubation. The loss of viability was examined based on the viable count of the colony-forming units on the plates and presented as log CFU/mL.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Heavy Metals Content in HS, Conductivity, and pH of Composites

The results of testing heavy metals content in HS are presented in Table 2. The HS used for concrete production does not exceed the standard limits for the heavy metal content in the building materials for structures destined for people’s stay.
The results of testing pH, conductivity, and content of organic substances in the HC and HS are presented in Table 3. In the case of the reference concrete HC0, the 20% cement content in the composite’s volume caused an almost two-times increase in pH (from 6.37 for HS to 11.74 for HC0). All other composites had a pH above 12, which makes it possible to use the additional steel reinforcement. The similar decreases in the organic parts content in concrete HC1, HC2 and HC3 confirm that the method of composing the concrete and its compaction enabled similar hemp content to be obtained in the hardened composites. The conductivity of the tested materials significantly increased with the increasing binder content. The conductivity value depends on the used binder properties and is the lowest in the case of cement concrete HC3.

3.2. Thermal Conductivity

Figure 3 presents the average values of the thermal conductivity λ of the tested hemp concrete. Very low thermal conductivity has been observed for HC0 containing the lowest amount of cement binder. The thermal conductivity of HC1, containing only lime binder, was 0.12 W/(m·K), 71% higher than that of HC0. The obtained values for these concretes are comparable to those of previous studies [12,13] (λ varies from 0.08 to 0.16 W/(m·K) for density HC of 300 ÷ 670 kg/m3).
The thermal conductivity of HC2, containing a cement–lime binder, was 18% higher than that of HC3 (with the exact content of the binder) and was 257% higher than that of HC0 with the exact content of the cement binder. A very similar dry density characterises HC2 and HC3 concretes. The difference in thermal conductivity is due to the difference in the porosity distribution of these two binders. A large scatter of the results has also been obtained in the case of volumetric specific heat (Figure 4).
Due to the highest porosity and lowest density, HC0 demonstrated the lowest specific heat. In the case of HC2, containing a cement–lime binder, the specific heat was about 355% higher than for HC0. HC 1 had a specific heat of 0.47 MJ/(m3K), which is by 260% higher than for HC0. The obtained values are characterised by a similar volumetric specific heat as the concretes presented in [35,36,37,38,39]. The differences between the tested materials regarding the thermal diffusivity coefficient were less significant than in the case of the remaining thermal properties (Figure 5). The highest average thermal diffusivity was noted for HC0; it was 0.39 × 10−6 m2/s., i.e., almost 17% higher than for HC3 with the highest cement content. The thermal diffusivity of HC1 and concrete with cement–lime binder HC2 was lower by 31% and 21% than HC0, respectively.

3.3. Compressive Strength

The compressive strength determination results for HC after 28 days of curing are presented in Figure 6.
The lowest compressive strength has been determined for the concrete HC0 containing only 20% of the binder in its volume. Such a low strength was not only an effect of the very low amount of binder but also a result of the lack of pressure compaction of the concrete mix during its preparation and the consequence of the hemp absorbing a part of the water needed for cement hydration. The concrete containing a lime binder, HC1, has achieved more than 12 times higher strength than the reference concrete. However, the average strength still needs to be higher for accepted concrete as a structural material. The cement–lime concrete, HC2, has achieved the highest average strength. The average compressive strength was 9.56 MPa, and the minimal strength was 9.15 MPa. EN-206 allows the concrete HC2 to be categorised as structural concrete of the class LC8/9 class. The cement concrete, HC3, had slightly lower (by 9%) strength than the concrete HC2. The lower strength of HC3 can be explained by the fact that according to the studies [27,29], the hemp shives contain pectins that hinder cement hydration. Therefore, the pectins’ action should be neutralised by mineralisers. The compressive strength of HC with a lime binder can help extend the curing time of wet conditions. Therefore, in the case of HC on lime binders, the mechanical properties are most often tested after 56 days from moulding [8,21]. As has been found in the biological tests described below, the water glass appeared to be ineffective in that range.

3.4. Antimicrobial Properties

A different hemp adding method was employed in this study. Figure 7 presents the HC antimicrobial properties against tested microorganisms. Interestingly, the sample containing only lime as a binder (HC1) shows the best antimicrobial activity against all tested model microorganisms. After only 30 min, a total inactivation of Gram-negative E. coli, Gram-positive S. epidermidis and mould fungi A. niger occurred (Figure 7a–c).
Our results showed that each evaluated hemp concrete displays antimicrobial action and causes a significant (from 3 to 6 log) reduction in the bacterial cell and fungal spores after 60 min. However, the poorer antimicrobial performance demonstrated materials based on cement binder (specimens HC0 and HC3). The method of adding the hemp to the concrete and the type of binder both play a vital role in the antimicrobial activity. We suggest that the porous structure of hemp fibre increases the antibacterial effect when combined with lime as a binder in concrete. It is well known that lime concrete has slightly higher values of water sorption coefficients. An increase in pH negatively affects bacterial viability, particularly Gram-negative bacteria E. coli [40,41]. The above observation was confirmed in our studies (Figure 7a). The same effect was observed for Aspergillus niger—moulds that colonise damp or water-damaged building materials and elements or ventilation systems. According to [29], hemp concrete shows slow mineralisation under the action of lime which makes the composite inert and reduces the risk of rot and mould growth.
It has been widely accepted that the Cannabis sativa L. plants produce various (over 560) chemical compounds. Many present antimicrobial actions (e.g., cannabinoids, alco-hols, simple aldehydes, simple ketones, simple esters, lactones, steroids, terpenes, non-cannabinoid phenols, and flavonoid glycosides) [42,43]. The evaluation of the chemical composition of flax and hemp fibres confirmed that some of these biologically active sub-stances are also extracted from raw materials. The parameters of hemp fibres depend on many factors like the type of variety, the climatic conditions, and the applied retting method, which all affect the chemical composition of the fibres [44].
The antibacterial activity of different hemp shiv powders has been proven against E. coli. The results of tests performed according to ASTM E2149-10 showed that hemp shiv powder heated at 160 °C for two hours causes 90% bacterial reduction after one hour. It was also found that the particle size of shiv powder has no evident impact on the anti-bacterial performance [42]. Hemp fibres were chemically modified to create a new strategy for designing materials characterised by improved antimicrobial activity. Grafted hemp fibres with quaternary ammonium groups (HF–GTA) [45] demonstrated antibacterial activity, resulting from the positive charge carried by the quaternary ammonium group and the negative charge of the bacterial cell membranes. There is a lack of knowledge on hemp fibres’ mechanisms of action. Nonetheless, the bacterial death caused by the release of cytoplasmic substances and depletion of the electrochemical potential on the cell membrane was offered to explain these phenomena [30,45]. Studies based on using hemp to modify concrete for antibacterial application have been reported only by [46]. In these studies, the lime hemp concrete was inoculated repeatedly with a high concentration of a mixed culture of fungi Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp. and the Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus sp. within two years. It was shown that all microorganisms were killed within two months of the first inoculation. Moreover, the tested materials showed no deterioration and were resistant to biodeterioration.

4. Conclusions

The carried-out investigation showed that doubling the content of the cement–lime binder in the hemp concrete allows compressive strength to be achieved that is comparable to the class of the light aggregate concrete, i.e., LC8/9 (according to the European Standard EN-206). It should be stressed that each HC was compacted on the vibrating table without additional pressing. The vibropress reduces the porosity of the hemp concrete, thus increasing its strength.
Increasing binder content in the tested HC resulted in a loss of thermal insulation ability. The thermal conductivity rose by almost two times for the lime binder (HC1) and more than three times for the cement–lime binder (HC2) and cement binder (HC3).
Our microbiological tests confirmed that lime is the most effective mineraliser. Our microbiological tests confirmed that if lime is used as a mineraliser, the antimicrobial activity of concretes increases. The efficiency of sodium trisilicate as a mineraliser has not been confirmed in HC0 and HC3. Likely, the amount of sodium trisilicate used in the experiment (2% of the water mass) was too low. The hollow porous structure of hemp shive increased the antibacterial effect when combined with lime as a binder in obtained concretes in the conducted research. Cement also composites because lime composites have slightly higher values of water sorption coefficients.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, E.H. and A.M.-S.; methodology, A.G., J.S., O.P. and A.M.-S.; investigation, J.S., O.P. and A.G.; writing—original draft preparation E.H. and J.S.; writing—review and editing, E.H. and A.M.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All additional data are available after personal communication with authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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Applsci 13 08447 g001 550
Figure 1. Hemp shives (HS).
Figure 1. Hemp shives (HS).
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Figure 2. Porous structure of hemp shive (description in the text).
Figure 2. Porous structure of hemp shive (description in the text).
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Figure 3. The average values of thermal conductivity of the tested concretes.
Figure 3. The average values of thermal conductivity of the tested concretes.
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Figure 4. The average values of volumetric specific heat of the tested concretes.
Figure 4. The average values of volumetric specific heat of the tested concretes.
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Figure 5. The average values of thermal diffusivity of the tested concretes.
Figure 5. The average values of thermal diffusivity of the tested concretes.
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Figure 6. Compressive strength of HC after 28 days of curing.
Figure 6. Compressive strength of HC after 28 days of curing.
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Figure 7. Inactivation of microorganisms in tested HC (a) Escherichia coli (b) Staphylococcus ep-idermidis (c) Aspergillus niger.
Figure 7. Inactivation of microorganisms in tested HC (a) Escherichia coli (b) Staphylococcus ep-idermidis (c) Aspergillus niger.
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Table
Table 1. Characteristics of HC concrete.
Table 1. Characteristics of HC concrete.
Concrete
Designation		Type of
Binder		Binder/
Shives Ratio
(by Mass)		Water/
Binder Ratio
(by Mass)		SP a
[% of Binder
Mass]		ST a
[% of Water
Mass]		Dry
Density
[kg/m3]
HC0100% C a2.01.31.52382 ± 13
HC1100% L a5.30.7--655 ± 22
HC240% L a
+ 60% C a		5.30.71.5-988 ± 17
HC3100% C a5.30.71.521026 ± 11
a C—cement; L—lime, SP—superplasticiser, ST—sodium trisilicate.
Table
Table 2. Chemical analysis of HS (ions content in the sample per kg of the dry mass).
Table 2. Chemical analysis of HS (ions content in the sample per kg of the dry mass).
Ca
[g/kg]		 Mg
[g/kg]		Na
[g/kg]		K
[g/kg]		Cr
[mg/kg]		Hg
[mg/kg]		Fe
[g/kg]		Zn
[mg/kg]		Cu
[mg/kg]		Mn
[mg/kg]		Ni
[mg/kg]		Pb
[mg/kg]		Cd
[mg/kg]
2.5390.9790.2051.08216.2860.1000.28741.1810.7678.2003.856(1)0.158
(1) beyond the limit of detection.
Table
Table 3. The pH measured in a water solution of HS and HC concrete and the content of organic matter (according to ISO 14688-2 [34]).
Table 3. The pH measured in a water solution of HS and HC concrete and the content of organic matter (according to ISO 14688-2 [34]).
SpecimenpHAverage Conductivity [mS/cm]Residue after Roasting at 650 °C
Organic Substances [%]Mineral Substances
[%]
HS6.320.4898.531.47
HC011.743.8040.3759.63
HC112.328.5924.4275.58
HC212.297.4222.7177.29
HC312.255.9523.1276.88
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Horszczaruk, E.; Strzałkowski, J.; Głowacka, A.; Paszkiewicz, O.; Markowska-Szczupak, A. Investigation of Durability Properties for Lightweight Structural Concrete with Hemp Shives Instead of Aggregate. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 8447. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13148447

AMA Style

Horszczaruk E, Strzałkowski J, Głowacka A, Paszkiewicz O, Markowska-Szczupak A. Investigation of Durability Properties for Lightweight Structural Concrete with Hemp Shives Instead of Aggregate. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(14):8447. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13148447

Chicago/Turabian Style

Horszczaruk, Elżbieta, Jarosław Strzałkowski, Anna Głowacka, Oliwia Paszkiewicz, and Agata Markowska-Szczupak. 2023. "Investigation of Durability Properties for Lightweight Structural Concrete with Hemp Shives Instead of Aggregate" Applied Sciences 13, no. 14: 8447. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13148447

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