Review of the Properties of Sustainable Cementitious Systems Incorporating Ceramic Waste

Abstract

Global carbon dioxide emissions can be attributed to Portland cement production; thus, an alternative cementitious system is essential to reduce cement demand. Ceramic waste powder (CWP), which contains high proportions of silica and alumina, has emerged as a promising alternative because of its chemical composition. This review discusses the potential of CWP as an alternative cementitious system and its effects on the physical, mechanical, and durability properties of cementitious systems. The findings revealed that the utilization of CWP in cementitious systems has positive effects on their physical, mechanical, and durability properties owing to the chemical composition of CWP, which can act as a filler material or contribute to the pozzolanic reaction. A pozzolanic reaction occurs between the silica and alumina in the CWP and calcium hydroxide in the cement, resulting in the production of additional cementitious materials such as calcium silicate hydrates and calcium aluminate hydrates. These additional materials can improve the strength and durability of cementitious systems. Various studies have demonstrated that CWP can be effectively used as a partial replacement for cement in cementitious systems. This can reduce the carbon footprint of construction activities by reducing the demand for Portland cement. However, the optimal amount and particle size of CWP have not been fully determined, and further research is required to optimize its use in cementitious systems. In addition, the technical and economic challenges associated with the use of CWP in construction must be further investigated to ensure its effective implementation.

1. Introduction

The increasing demand for recycled materials has enabled researchers to prioritize the improvement of recycling and recovery technologies. These place focus on the use of waste—not only waste after the use of a material but, more dominantly, the waste generated during the production of many materials. Ceramics are inorganic materials composed of metal and nonmetal atoms primarily interconnected via ionic and covalent bonding [1]. Ceramics possess several advantageous physical characteristics, such as excellent adhesive and hardness properties, high strength, exceptional resistance to corrosion and acidic or alkaline conditions, enhanced thermal-degradation temperatures, and low thermal and electrical conductivity values [2]; thus, they are widely used in civil engineering materials. However, the production of ceramic tiles generates a significant amount of waste, which poses a serious environmental concern because it is not typically recycled and is instead disposed of in landfills or other disposal sites. An alternative to the disposal of ceramic wastes is to use them as components in revolutionary blended cement [3]. The production of ceramic items involves the combination of various raw materials, including dolomite, talc, potash feldspar, clay, and chemicals of various types to achieve a glazed and finished effect. The manufacturing process of ceramics requires the use of temperatures ranging between 900 and 1000 °C for a 24–30 h period [4,5], potentially resulting in pozzolanic reactivity within the products. This reaction is responsible for the exceptional strength and durability of ceramics over long periods [6]. Ceramic waste powder (CWP), created by polishing, crushing, and glazing burned clay, can be utilized as a pozzolan and component of future ecologically friendly cement [7] because silica and alumina are the two main chemical components of CWP, as shown in Figure 1. However, the proportions of silica and alumina can vary based on the type of clay used. Additionally, CWP has particle sizes ranging from 0.4 to 40 μm with an average particle size of 8 μm, whereas cement powder particles have an average size of 50 μm and a size range of 2–100 μm [2,8]. The mineralogical composition of ceramic waste varies depending on the type and manufacturing process of the ceramic material. Common minerals in ceramic waste include quartz, feldspar, mica, kaolinite, and various oxides such as alumina, silica, and iron oxide (see Table 1). Other minerals, such as anhydrite, calcite, cordierite, celsian, cristobalite, corundum, esseneite, lime, mullite, magnetite, muscovite, piroxene, titanite, and zircon, may also be present in smaller amounts. CWP particles exhibit irregular and angular morphologies similar to those of cement, which are characterized by smooth and flat surfaces with sharp angles, as shown in Figure 2.

Furthermore, waste sludge generated by ceramic effluent treatment plants can be effectively utilized as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) [9]. This can effectively enhance concrete strength [10,11], reduce water bleeding, and improve cohesion in the fresh phase [10]. Therefore, the addition of CWP to concrete mixtures can improve concrete durability [12]. It can also have a positive impact on the alkali–silica reaction because of the presence of siliceous residues in the CWP [13], resulting in high-quality alkali-activated materials. This phenomenon results in substantial savings [14], improved durability, and environmental friendliness [15]. This approach helps waste management, reduces the cost of cement production, and can potentially improve the durability and strength of the resulting concrete.

Figure 1. Chemical composition of CWP [16].

Figure 1. Chemical composition of CWP [16].

Figure 2. Morphology of CWP from Refs. (a) [17] and (b) [18].

Figure 2. Morphology of CWP from Refs. (a) [17] and (b) [18].

Table 1. Common minerals in ceramic waste [14].

Ceramic Type	Primary Compositions	Secondary Compositions
Ceramic brick	Quartz	Hematite, calcite, anhydrite, muscovite
Overheated brick	Quartz, anorthoclase	muscovite, cristobalite, anhydrite, hematite
White porous stoneware tile in double baking	Quartz	Anorthite Na, piroxene
Red porous stoneware tile in single baking	Quartz	Zircon, hematite, anorthite Na
White stoneware tile	Quartz, anorthoclase	Cristobalite, gehlenite, hauyne
Red stoneware tile	Quartz, albite Ca	Cristobalite, mullite, piroxene
China stoneware tile	Quartz	Albite Ca, cristobalite, piroxene
White roof tile	Quartz, muscovite, anorthoclase	Ah, hematite, cristobalite
Red roof tile	Quartz, illite	Calcite, feldspars
Ceramic table for cover	Quartz, anorthoclase	Anhydrite, hematite

Table 1. Common minerals in ceramic waste [14].

Ceramic Type	Primary Compositions	Secondary Compositions
Ceramic brick	Quartz	Hematite, calcite, anhydrite, muscovite
Overheated brick	Quartz, anorthoclase	muscovite, cristobalite, anhydrite, hematite
White porous stoneware tile in double baking	Quartz	Anorthite Na, piroxene
Red porous stoneware tile in single baking	Quartz	Zircon, hematite, anorthite Na
White stoneware tile	Quartz, anorthoclase	Cristobalite, gehlenite, hauyne
Red stoneware tile	Quartz, albite Ca	Cristobalite, mullite, piroxene
China stoneware tile	Quartz	Albite Ca, cristobalite, piroxene
White roof tile	Quartz, muscovite, anorthoclase	Ah, hematite, cristobalite
Red roof tile	Quartz, illite	Calcite, feldspars
Ceramic table for cover	Quartz, anorthoclase	Anhydrite, hematite

Studies of cement microstructure have shown that the low water-to-cement ratio of blended cement without CWP makes it easier for CWP to produce densely packed particles when it is added to the blended cement, which explains why the addition of CWP significantly improved cement performance [19,20].

Table 2. Optimal replacement levels of CWP for various cementitious performance measures [18,21].

Performance Measures	CWP Replacement, wt.%
Workability retention	10–20
Strength	10
Durability	40
Workability retention + strength	10–20
Strength + durability	30–40
Workability retention + durability	30–40
Workability retention + strength + durability	30–40

lists the appropriate levels of CWP that can be added to cementitious systems to satisfy certain performance criteria. The table lists various performance criteria, such as strength, workability, and durability, and provides the corresponding recommended levels of CWP replacement based on previous studies.

Incorporating CWP into the construction and building sectors is becoming increasingly acknowledged as a sustainable strategy that benefits the environment [22]. This is because CWP is highly resilient, robust, and resistant to numerous types of biological, chemical, and physical deterioration [16]. Therefore, waste ceramics may potentially be less expensive yet functionally similar alternatives to metakaolin as supplemental binders for cement-based composites [23,24,25]. Ceramic tiles obtained from construction and demolition waste used for flooring and wall cladding have elevated concentrations of silica and alumina oxides, indicating their pozzolanic nature [26]. Ceramic polishing powders have long been employed as an adjunct cementitious material in concrete [27]. Ceramic waste can be used to prepare clay-based materials and polymer-based composites; enhance thermal performance, desulfurization techniques, and infiltration; and as cementitious additives, mortar concrete additives, and building materials [28]. Previous studies investigated the mechanical and long-term properties of CWP when used as a substitute for OPC binders and in combination with both fine and coarse aggregates. However, CWP is a suitable raw material for producing high-quality alkali-activated concrete and mortars because of its highly crystalline aluminosilicate chemical properties [29,30,31,32]. The application and utilization of ceramic waste in various fields, including construction and material sciences, has contributed significantly to their development. In addition, CWP offers a potential alternative approach for the safe disposal of ceramic waste. Accordingly, recent studies focused on the use of CWP as a partial substitute for cement in concrete and other cementitious materials. This study presents a comprehensive review of the physical, mechanical, and durability properties of cementitious systems incorporating CWP, highlighting the potential benefits and limitations of this approach.

2. Impacts of Ceramic Waste on the Environment

As the ceramic industry continues to expand rapidly, greater volumes of waste generated during ceramic processing are being deposited in the environment. This has significant environmental implications and poses a challenge to the ceramic industry’s efforts to maintain environmental sustainability [25]. Approximately 31% of ceramic plant production is categorized as industrial waste, which results in severe environmental pollution and requires the utilization of a vast expanse of dry land, particularly once the waste has dried, to facilitate disposal. To address this issue, quickly disposing of and utilizing ceramic waste within the construction industry is essential [33]. Currently, no efficient method exists to treat or repurpose the polishing powder generated from ceramic waste, and it is often left to accumulate in open areas or is simply disposed of in landfills. This practice has significant environmental implications, and an alternative approach is required to address this issue. Additionally, major issues related to the manufacture of ceramic tiles and sanitary ware include dust and greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, and wastewater management [34]. According to recent studies, ceramic tile powder particles were reported to be inexpensive waste materials that may help solve the solid waste disposal problem while also protecting the environment from contamination [8]. Ceramic waste utilization presents a promising opportunity to advance waste-recycling initiatives and enhance environmental protection [35].

The existing pragmatic approach of reusing ceramic waste during manufacturing is the most feasible way to achieve a balance between economic and environmental gains [3,36,37]. In recent years, international standards have recommended the use of industrial waste, such as ceramic waste, in the manufacturing of cement owing to the advantages it provides in science, technology, and the environment, particularly the durability pertaining to this waste [38]. The increasing use of land to dispose of conventional aggregates each year necessitates the exploration of eco-friendly alternatives to gravel or sand as natural aggregates by utilizing ceramic waste, which is both recyclable and easily available [31]. The waste generated by the ceramic industries includes a substantial quantity of used waste ceramic sludge. Historically, this waste has been dumped in landfills and has caused serious environmental consequences. Therefore, many studies have demonstrated that customized blends of various types of ceramic waste have the potential to produce environmentally friendly building materials and contribute to the development of environmentally conscious practices in the construction sector [13]. These approaches have been shown to have a positive impact on the environment; therefore, they are essential components of sustainable development, which is particularly critical for the construction industry [13]. This observation enables a comprehensive exploration of the intricate requirements of recycling ceramic tile waste that necessitate further research. This can yield an effective strategy for environmental protection while also improving the attributes of cement mortar [1]. One of the attributes of using ceramic waste is that it contributes to environmental sustainability. This is because it reduces energy consumption and CO₂ emissions associated with binder production. Additionally, it minimizes the depletion of landscapes used for the industrial production of binders and aggregates, which in turn reduces the carbon footprint associated with mining activities that typically cause damage to landscapes and riverbeds [39]. The energy influence of producing one kilogram of cement clinker is approximately 850 k/cal. Because cement accounts for more than 45% of the expense of concrete, using any type of industrial effluent or byproduct in place of cement in concrete leads to substantial energy savings and environmental benefits. This can also reduce the cost of concrete considerably [29].

Utilizing ceramic waste benefits the environment by decreasing the energy use and carbon dioxide emissions related with binder production, as well as trying to minimize the exploitation of raw materials for the industrial production of binders and aggregates, thereby lowering the carbon footprint associated with the destruction of the landscape and riverbeds caused by mining operations [40]. Moreover, one of the reported ways to reduce the impact of ceramic waste can be achieved by reusing and recycling ceramic waste to manufacture concrete [41], which has been proven to decrease greenhouse gas emissions [6,13]. This reusability concern is addressed by recycling ceramic waste into building materials, which effectively offsets the vast amount of ceramic waste that is generated daily. This not only relieves the strain on ceramic industries but also reduces waste and helps to decrease the power consumption and cost of manufacturing in industrial facilities. Moreover, this approach can improve material quality [42]. CWP initially has the potential to pollute air, water, and soil in its raw form, but it has proven to be helpful in reducing environmental damage when it is used as a substitute ingredient in concrete [43,44]. In addition, it not only minimizes the need for virgin cement [45] but also for structural concrete that incorporates 20–40% waste in place of Portland cement [36]. Implementing ceramic waste recycling approaches can address waste management issues in the ceramic industry while promoting a sustainable concrete market. This reduces reliance on nonrenewable resources, such as cement and aggregates, while mitigating the environmental hazards linked with landfills [46]. Reusing this waste in ceramic production may help preserve the environment and reduce carbon emissions [47]. Recycling ceramic waste through ceramic and power-generation companies is an important step toward addressing global environmental challenges [48].

3. Types of Ceramic Waste

Ceramic sludge is a byproduct generated in the ceramic industry during water treatment using chemical coagulation. It comprises ceramic polishing sludge from porcelain and stoneware, sludge-treatment residuals, sediments from desilting operations, and residues from rotary drilling [49].

The ceramic industry generates two distinct types of waste: burned tile polishing waste and tile glazing waste. Burned tile polishing involves the use of silicon carbide abrasives and magnesium (MgOHCl) binders, resulting in surface-finishing byproducts containing SiC, calcium, magnesium carbonates, and soluble chlorine compounds. This polishing sludge, classified as special waste, is considered safe in Europe but cannot be recycled within a closed-loop system owing to the presence of CaO, MgO, SiC, and chlorine components [3]. Meanwhile, tile glazing waste originates from wastewater treatment to eliminate impurities. The glaze composition may include heavy metals, such as copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium, which can be influenced by the depuration chemicals used, such as inorganic or organic coagulants and flocculants. This waste is classified as hazardous or nonhazardous depending on the quantity of heavy metals present. The implementation of closed-loop glaze recycling provides an opportunity to integrate this waste into the ceramic industry, thereby preventing its transformation into polished sludge and promoting sustainable waste management [3]. Furthermore, studies have investigated the integration of burned clay waste from polishing and glazing with fresh cement [50]. In recent studies, wet clay was extruded and vitrified to produce ceramic media with abrasives such as silicon carbide, quartz, or aluminum oxide, and a diameter of 80–200 µm was obtained. The media was ground, and recovering wasted grinding metals from the medium and eventually creating a fine ceramic sludge waste product was considered part of the finishing process [20]. Specifically, CWP was derived from either the end ceramic tile polishing process or pulverized waste tiles [20]. Ceramic waste can take various forms, including powder generated during the ceramic polishing process [27]. Tiles for floors, walls, bricks, and roofs; sanitary and table wares; vitrified clay pipelines; and expanded clay aggregates are examples of ceramic products for which waste materials can be generated during the forming process and from waste earthenware [33]. These waste materials in powder form have the potential to enhance the mechanical properties of concrete. This makes it a promising and appealing option for all industries at the forefront of recycling and creating sustainable building materials, such as the tile, ceramic, and cement industries [51]. Furthermore, there is growing interest in investigating the use of large amounts of waste ceramic tiles as both a primary material and recycled aggregate in the development of geopolymer mortars [31]. Kaolin, also known as aluminosilicate powder, has been identified as a ceramic powder. It is derived from kaolinite, a group of clay minerals that contain hydrated aluminum silicates [52].

Figure 3 shows how ceramic waste can be categorized into two groups based on the raw material source. The first group includes byproducts of the firing process, such as bricks, tiles, and roof tiles, which are typically used in roofing implementation. Surface-treated waste ceramics, including tiles, floors, and sanitary ware, belong to the latter group [53]. Moreover,

Table 3. Utilization rates of various ceramic waste forms in cementitious materials production [22].

Waste Type	Waste Size (μm)	Recommended Quantity
Ceramic sanitary	<75	5%
Red ceramic block	<75	Inappropriate for use in applications susceptible to sulfate attack
Bone china ceramic	<90	10% ceramic + 30% granite waste
Bone china ceramic	<90	10% for self-compacting concrete
Ceramic tile	-	5% in 10% bacterial concrete
Red ceramic	D90 = 44	30%
Tiles and sanitary	D90 = 56	25%
Ceramic tile	D90 = 20	0%
Ceramic factory	<100	10%
Red ceramic roof tiles	<63	50%
Ceramic sanitary	D90 = 60	25%
Ceramic tile	Davg = 8	35% for ultra-high-performance concrete

provides information regarding the utilization rates of different ceramic waste forms in the production of cementitious materials. Ceramic waste forms are by-products or residues generated from various ceramic manufacturing processes, such as the production of tiles or sanitary ware. These waste forms can be recycled or incorporated into cementitious materials, such as concrete, to enhance their properties or reduce the environmental impact associated with ceramic waste disposal.

Ceramic powder can be acquired by exposing ceramic-production leftovers, such as roof tiles, floor tiles, and red clay bricks, to a suitable level of grinding to obtain optimum fineness [43]. Ceramic waste can be generated from various manufacturing processes, such as brick-making, block-making, roof-tile production, manufacturing of sanitary ware, wall- and floor-tile production, and stoneware production; waste is typically obtained from discarded crushed tiles or the final polishing process of ceramic tiles [44].

4. Cement-Paste-Incorporated Ceramic Waste

4.1. Fresh Properties

The incorporation of ceramic sludge into cement paste can result in variable workability. One study that used geopolymer paste to produce waste-based cement paste with more specific porosity and a larger surface area showed that ceramic sludge can have a detrimental effect on workability compared to its traditional Portland cement counterpart [3]. Cement-based materials containing waste ceramics are likely to have lower workability owing to different factors such as clay composition, particle morphology, and a porous nature [53]. Moreover, the origin of the ceramic waste can influence how easily the cement paste can be used [9]. Conversely, the introduction of up to 15% CWP was also observed to improve the flowability of fresh self-compacted concrete [54]. However, as the volume of CWP increased, the amount of superplasticizer required to maintain the desired workability of the mixture also increased [35]. The interaction strength between CWP and hydrates increased as hydration progressed, resulting in a CWP chemical reaction [17]. In general, when ceramic waste is used as a substitute for cement in proportions ranging from 10% to 50%, the workability and compressive strength of the cementitious material decrease. The reduction in compressive strength can be attributed to an incomplete pozzolanic reaction and the nonhydraulic nature of the ceramic powder, which can delay the formation and growth of calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) gel in the cementitious material [53]. However, when added to alkali-activated slag (AAS) pastes, CWP can improve water absorption while decreasing workability [55]. As shown in Figure 4, the addition of crushed tile and debris waste (CTDW) caused a gradual increase in the static yield stress and paste viscosity as well as a decline in the microslump.

In comparison with limestone (LF), the addition of CTDW to cement improves the hydration kinetics of the specimen, leading to a substantial increase in both the peak primary heat flow and cumulative heat values at 24 and 168 h by approximately 8%, 5%, and 6%, respectively, which contribute to its primary hydration. The CTDW primarily acts as a fine filler in the early stages of hydration, promoting hydration through a physical mechanism instead of exhibiting pozzolanic activity. The unification of CTDW into the cement paste gradually reduces the interparticle distance owing to its wider surface area and higher volumetric particle concentration. This causes a reduction in the minislump from 62 to 55 mm and an increase in the static yield stress from 87 to 125 Pa [37]. Furthermore, based on the study conducted in Ref. [20], integrating CWP in the cement paste as a replacement for cement at proportion levels of 10% and 20% had no effect on the setting times. However, replacing cement with CWP at levels higher than or equal to 30% resulted in a substantial increase in the final setting time by up to 42 min.

In conclusion, the incorporation of CWP into cement paste can significantly affect the workability of the resulting cementitious material. The workability of a material is likely to decrease when CW is used as a substitute for cement in proportions ranging from 10% to 50%. This reduction can be attributed to an incomplete pozzolanic reaction and the nonhydraulic nature of the ceramic powder, which can delay the formation and growth of C-S-H gel in the cementitious material. However, adding CW in proportions of up to 15% can improve the flowability of fresh self-compacting concrete. The origin of the CW can also influence the workability of the cement paste. The addition of CWP to AAS pastes improves water absorption and decreases workability. The setting time is not affected when CWP is added to the cement paste as a replacement for cement in proportions of 10% and 20%. However, replacing the cement with CWP at levels higher than or equal to 30% results in a substantial increase in the final setting time.

4.2. Physical Properties

The properties of cement are influenced by the shapes of its particles. When cement is ground into particles with a more regular (spherical) shape, the surface area is lower than that of irregularly shaped cement particles. However, CWP particles exhibit angular shapes. Based on an XRD pattern analysis, CWP was identified as a typical ceramic material composed primarily of Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, and SiO_2. The presence of these oxides in CWP indicates that it exhibits pozzolanic properties. In addition, when the volume of CWP is increased, a corresponding increase in the percentage reduction in the cement content is observed [35]. Deviations in particle surface area cause varying water demands in batches of differently shaped cement. Images revealed that when CWP was used instead of cement, the pores and voids were reduced [56].

The particle morphology of CWP, which is used as a partial replacement for cement, contributes to the densification of the microstructure in hardened mortar [35]. The addition of CWP to cement increases the internal surface area, which promotes the formation of cement hydrates [57]. As illustrated in Figure 5, the addition of finely ground ceramics to cement pastes slows the hydration process [58]. The CWP-based paste exhibits the most significant reduction and the highest coefficient of thermal expansion among the tested pastes [23].

In summary, the shape of cement particles has a significant impact on their properties, as irregularly shaped particles have a higher surface area compared to spherical particles. However, CWP particles possess an angular shape and exhibit pozzolanic properties owing to the presence of oxides, such as Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, and SiO₂. The use of CWP as a partial replacement for cement contributes to the densification of the microstructure in the hardened paste. An increase in the internal surface area promotes the formation of cement hydrates. The addition of finely ground ceramics to cement pastes slows the hydration process. When CWP is used instead of cement, the pores and voids decrease. The CWP-based paste exhibits the highest coefficient of thermal expansion and the most significant reduction among the tested pastes.

4.3. Mechanical Properties

The addition of CWP to concrete resulted in a decrease in compressive strength compared to that of the same concrete mixture without CWP [22]. However, the early stages of hydration exhibited improved strength gain owing to the filler action of the CWP, which reduced the dilution effect [24]. At all hydration times, the substitution of OPC with 5% or 10% CWP (by mass of OPC) significantly increased compressive strength. However, substituting 20% CWP for OPC during all hydration stages resulted in higher compressive strengths. Moreover, the addition of 0.05% or 0.1% carbon nanotube (CNT) particles to pure OPC or blended cement with 5% CWP composites increased the compressive strength at nearly all stages of hydration in comparison with their respective counterparts without CNTs, as illustrated in Figure 6 [59]. Additionally, the impact of the firing temperature on the ability of OPC paste with added CWP to withstand compression was studied. The results indicated that OPC paste made by substituting 5% or 10% of OPC with CWP exhibited better resistance to high temperatures compared with traditional OPC, particularly after being fired at 300 and 600 °C [59]. The use of nonhydraulic CWP as a substitute for cement resulted in a decreased mechanical strength, likely owing to the delay in the immature pozzolanic reaction [53]. The inclusion of 50% CWP in AAS resulted in 1.91-, 1.53-, and 1.55-fold increases in compressive strength after 7, 28, and 91 days, respectively. This development in strength can be attributed to CWP’s filling effect, which ultimately led to a more tightly packed and denser microstructure as well as a decrease in temperature between 200 and 600 °C [55]. CTDW demonstrated up to 5% greater strength than that of limestone despite its identical replacement age and level [37]. Additionally, the inclusion of fine ceramic powder improved the durability of the final fracture properties of the cement pastes [58]. Furthermore, at different firing temperatures, adding 0.1% CNTs to OPC without CWP or with a CWP replacement in proportions of 5%, 10%, or 20% significantly improved the fire resistance compared to mixes without CNTs [59]. However, incorporating CWP into AAS in amounts of up to 50% led to a significant increase in fire resistance. This is because the addition of CWP contributed to the formation of new heat-resistant binder phases such as mullite, albite, nepheline, and akermanite, which improved the ability of the material to withstand high temperatures [55].

In conclusion, the addition of CWP to cement paste can initially result in a decline in compressive strength, but it can improve the strength gain in the early stages of hydration owing to its filler action, thereby reducing the dilution effect. The substitution of OPC with 5% or 10% CWP during all hydration stages significantly increased the compressive strength, whereas the substitution of 20% CWP resulted in higher compressive strength. However, the inclusion of 50% CWP in AAS resulted in a significant increase in the compressive strength, and incorporating up to 50% CWP in AAS led to a significant increase in fire resistance. This is because the addition of CWP contributed to the formation of new heat-resistant binder phases such as mullite, albite, nepheline, and akermanite, which improved the ability of the material to withstand high temperatures.

5. Cement-Mortar-Incorporated Ceramic Waste

5.1. Fresh Properties

Generally, the presence of CWP in cement mixtures decreases workability owing to a further increase in the fineness and percentage of ceramic powder in comparison to the control mix. The finer CWP particles densify the microstructure of the matrix by filling voids and lowering the concrete porosity [6]. However, adding ceramic waste to mortar samples has no effect on workability and may even reduce the requirement for water, as reported in Ref. [22]. The addition of ceramic as a filler reduces the consistency and plasticity of the mortar [60]. When CWP was added to the mortar mix, it reduced both the compressive strength and workability by approximately 20% compared to the standard mixtures. Various superplasticizer dosages were used to assess workability, with elevated amounts required for the required workability [20]. The addition of a mixed powder (CWP and cement) to produce mortar with a lower water content led to a reduction in the water–powder ratio and a significant decrease in the workability of the mortar mixture [35]. Moreover, the larger the substitution level of CWP, the more water was required to maintain the standard consistency of the mortar, as shown in Figure 7, resulting in lower workability [39]. The partial replacement of OPC with CWP generated from red clay ceramic production resulted in a marginal decrease in the consistency of the fresh mortar [61]. Furthermore, an additional amount of CWP lowered the workability of the mortar mix compared to that of the standard OPC mortar, as shown in Figure 8. Using ceramic aggregates in mortar resulted in a marginally reduced workability owing to their angular shape and the presence of finer ceramic powder particles compared to OPC particles [62]. When CWP was supplemented with an enhanced amount of FA to replace GBFS, the setting times increased. This translated to a longer setting duration, which showed that the GBFS concentration within the mortar increases the setting rate [31].

Furthermore, the addition of ceramic dust to mortar decreased the quantity of water uptake, resulting in a beneficial improvement in water retention throughout the hydration period [63]. Consequently, mortars containing ceramic waste were more effective in terms of water retention. The total pore volume and pore size of the mortars decreased as the ratio of ceramic powder to lime increased [63]. The addition of CWP as a filler material to the mortar improved its ability to retain workability for an extended period [60]. The use of CWP as a substitute for cement in mortar can lead to the formation of hydration products, especially when the water/cement ratio in the mixture increases [57].

The incorporation of ceramic polishing powder to mortars has a beneficial effect on their hydration rate because it decreases the heat of hydration of cement and accelerates the early stages of hydration in cement pastes. This leads to the formation of a greater number of hydration products in mortars containing polishing powder, resulting in the production of denser cement pastes with lower average pore diameters [64].

In conclusion, the presence of CWP in cement mixtures generally decreases workability owing to an increase in the fineness and percentage of ceramic powder, which densifies the microstructure of the matrix by filling the voids and lowering concrete porosity. The addition of CWP as a filler reduces the consistency and plasticity of the mortar. Moreover, the larger the substitute level of CWP, the more water is needed to maintain the standard consistency of the mortar, resulting in lower workability. The addition of CWP as a filler material to the mortar improved its ability to retain workability for an extended period. The incorporation of CWP into mortars has a beneficial effect on their hydration rate because CWP decreases the heat of hydration of cement and accelerates the early stages of hydration in cement pastes. This leads to the formation of a greater number of hydration products in mortars containing CWP, resulting in the production of denser cement mortars with lower average pore diameters.

5.2. Physical Properties

The specific surface area of ceramic polishing residual and ceramic glazing residual were reported to be 25.9 and 10.9 m²/g, demonstrating that glazing residual has a considerable propensity to form particle agglomerates [3]. The ceramic powder had a particle size of less than 50 μm [65]. Moreover, the blended cements comprising 90% OPC + 10% CWP resulted in a marginal increase of 4% in the water requirement compared with the reference OPC. However, the water demand increased by 7.7% for 80% OPC + 20% CWP and by 11% for 70% OPC + 30% CWP compared with the reference OPC [7].

As the ceramic powder content increased, both temperature and enthalpy decreased [29]. Additionally, the specimens containing more than 20% ceramic powder in their blends exhibited a noticeable increase in open porosity and an alteration in the shape of the pore-size distribution curve. These findings suggest that the addition of 20% waste ceramics to concrete mixes limits the extent to which the engineering properties of the hardened concrete change [43].

As the proportion of ceramic powder in the blended cement increased, the hardened concrete mixes became more absorbent and more likely to increase the moisture diffusivity. However, the levels of absorption and moisture diffusivity remained within acceptable limits up to a ceramic powder content of 20% [43]. In contrast, the ceramic mortar exhibited a lower water absorption rate compared to the OPC mortar (Figure 9), with a difference of approximately 37% [39].

The dry density of the mortar mix decreased as the proportion of CWP increased [6]. When the sand was completely replaced with ceramic fines, an increase in the ceramic powder content led to a decrease in the dry bulk density of the mortar [66]. The addition of CWP to the specimens led to a reduction in porosity, where the specimens that contained 0% and 25% CWP had the lowest porosity and were the most compact, which led to the dry bulk density. However, when the specimens were subjected to a temperature of 800 °C, an increase in the porosity of the mortar specimens and a decrease in their dry bulk density was observed [67].

In conclusion, CWP has a particle size of less than 50 μm and can lead to particle agglomerates. Blended cement mortar comprising OPC and CWP increased the water requirement as the proportion of CWP increased. As the proportion of CWP in the mortar mixes increased, the temperature and enthalpy decreased, and the mortar became more absorbent, with a higher moisture diffusivity. However, the levels of absorption and moisture diffusivity remained within acceptable limits up to a CWP content of 20%. Ceramic mortar exhibited a significantly lower water absorption rate than that of OPC mortar. The dry density of the mortar mix decreased as the proportion of CWP increased, and an increase in CWP led to a decrease in the mortar dry bulk density. The addition of CWP to the specimens reduced their porosity, and the specimens with the lowest porosity were the most compact and had the highest dry bulk density. However, when the specimens were subjected to high temperatures, their porosity increased, and their dry bulk density decreased.

5.3. Mechanical Properties

Mortar mixtures containing ceramic waste exhibited improved compressive strength [68]. However, mortar containing 70% OPC and 30% ceramic sludge exhibited the best compressive strength [50,64]. The incorporation of ceramic dust into lime mortar resulted in increased mechanical strength. This demonstrated that replacing 20–30% of the cement with ceramic waste had no discernible impact on the mechanical behavior of the mixes [12]. The inclusion of CWP in the mix had an unfavorable effect and resulted in a decrease in the compressive strength of the mortar at different curing ages, as illustrated in Figure 10. The primary factors contributing to the reduction in compressive strength are the smooth surface texture and flaky structure of CWP, which may result in insufficient bonding between the matrix and CWP [6].

In contrast, some studies have reported that the enhanced strength of mortars containing ceramic particles can be explained by the excellent pozzolanic properties of the ceramic powder, which has a high concentration of reactive SiO₂. In addition, longer curing periods contributed to an increase in the splitting tensile and compressive strengths of the OPC mortar mixtures containing ceramic powders compared to the OPC mortar without CWP [62], as shown in Figure 10 and Figure 11. The use of ceramic tile waste instead of cement in mortar may decrease its strength; however, incorporating up to 35% waste satisfies the required strength activity index for fly ash. Additionally, the addition of up to 20% ceramic powder to the mixture increased the cube strength by at least 84.8% after curing for 7 and 28 days [35]. Replacing cement with up to 20% ceramic powder by weight can enhance the compressive strength and resistance of mortar to chloride-ion penetration [48]. Mortars containing 5% CWP exhibited the highest mechanical strength and most improved microstructures [56,65]. Moreover, the inclusion of ceramic powder in heat-treated mortar specimens enhanced the mechanical properties of the specimens [67]. This improvement was attributed to the filler action of the ceramic and its relative pozzolanic reaction [66].

The use of CWP in mortar increased the mortar’s splitting tensile strength compared to a mortar mixture without CWP. For example, for a curing period of 90 days, a mortar mixture containing 40% CWP exhibited a splitting tensile strength of 4.45 MPa, which was approximately 15% higher than that of the OPC mortar for the same curing time [39].

5.4. Durability Properties

Various methods were employed to determine the chloride resistance of mortar mixtures prepared using different binder proportions and water–binder ratios. The methods employed to evaluate the chloride resistance of the mortar mixtures included natural chloride diffusion, which measures the diffusion rate of chloride ions through the mortar; accelerated chloride migration, which determines the rate at which chloride ions move through the mortar under an electric field; and conductivity measurement, which measures the electrical conductivity of the mortar and indicates the presence of chloride ions in the mixture. The utilization of CWP as a substitute for cement and as a fine aggregate in mortar mixtures significantly improves the durability of the mortar. This improvement can be attributed to the characteristics of the mortar microstructures through enhanced pore systems, which increase the resistance of the mortar against chloride attacks and reduce the chloride penetration depth. Additionally, the mortar resistance against sulfate attacks significantly increases in mortar mixtures containing CWP owing to the pozzolanic activity of the ceramic powder. A comparison of OPC mortar with and without CWP showed that the mortar mixture with CWP content revealed a lower level of loss in mass and strength when exposed to sulfate attacks [62]. Similarly, the use of ceramic waste aggregates and powders in mortars resulted in enhanced durability with respect to chloride penetration [48]. Using CWP as an SCM has been demonstrated to be highly effective in reducing the cement content required for mortar while also enhancing its durability. This was achieved by enhancing the chloride resistance of the product [70]. By using appropriate amounts of ceramic waste, mortars that are highly compatible with the masonry systems of old buildings can be fabricated. Compared with hydraulic binders, mortars containing ceramic waste as an aggregate may demonstrate greater cohesiveness between the binder and aggregate owing to the shape and content of the pieces as well as the pozzolanic nature of the ceramic waste dust, resulting in hydraulic behavior. When combined with air lime or natural hydraulic lime, the microstructures of these mortars can be improved, thereby increasing their durability and resistance to chloride attack [63].

The addition of ceramic waste to cement mortar enhances its ability to withstand acidic conditions [1]. For Portland cement mortars made from crushed ceramic tiles, a substitution of 15% of the original material enhanced various properties of the mortars, including their compressive strength, water absorption, porosity, acid resistance, and microstructure [37]. The acid resistance of CWP mortars increased [56]; therefore, the use of CWP as a substitute for cement improved their ability to resist acids [69].

Research indicates that the drying shrinkage level of OPC mortar mixtures with CWP is lower than that of OPC mortar without CWP [39], as shown in Figure 12. More ceramic fillers were used to reduce shrinkage, although the degree of reduction decreased over time [60]. The dry shrinkage of the mortar mixtures noticeably increased with increasing amounts of polypropylene (PP) admixture [64]. Despite this increase in dry shrinkage with the addition of the PP admixture, the durability of the mortar was still somewhat enhanced, particularly in terms of rapid chloride permeability, ion penetration, acid resistance, electrical resistivity, water absorption, and resistance to corrosion [20]. Additionally, the CWP notably improved the resistance of the mortar mixtures to aggressive environments [68]. The use of CWP resulted in a reduction in crack extension with increasing temperature because the inclusion of CWP in the mortar specimens enhanced the thermal resistance of the mixes [67].

In summary, the inclusion of CW in mortar mixtures can have both positive and negative effects on compressive and splitting tensile strengths. Mortar mixtures containing CWP exhibit better compressive strength; however, the smooth surface texture and flaky structure of CWP can result in insufficient bonding with the matrix, leading to a decline in compressive strength. However, some studies have reported that the excellent pozzolanic properties of ceramic powder, which has a high concentration of reactive SiO₂, can contribute to an increase in the splitting tensile and compressive strengths of mortar mixtures containing CWP. Mortars containing 5% CWP exhibited the best mechanical strength and improved mortar microstructure. Furthermore, the inclusion of CWP in heat-treated mortar specimens enhanced their mechanical properties.

6. Concrete-Incorporated Ceramic Sludge

6.1. Fresh Properties

An increase in the percentage of CWP in concrete mixtures decreases their slump values [8,10], as shown in Figure 13. Because of the fine particle size of CWP, concrete mixtures containing CWP require a greater quantity of water or superplasticizer admixtures to achieve equivalent workability. However, the incorporation of CWP into a mixture can also reduce the strength of the resulting concrete [20]. CWP reduced the workability of fresh concrete [25]; however, when CWP was utilized as the sole replacement for cement, a rapid increase in the concrete-mixture slump was observed, indicating its plasticizing effect. Moreover, the compressive strength of the resulting concrete was enhanced by up to 15% when 15% of the cement was replaced with CWP [71]. CWP cement concrete exhibited a decreased workability retention [72]. Studies have determined that the uneven size distribution of ceramic waste constituents is responsible for the lack of consistency in the workability of concrete [22]. By integrating a mixture of recycled ceramic aggregates and cement from clay brick powder, recycled concrete mixtures can achieve an acceptable level of workability when a superplasticizer is used [73]. Segregation decreases when the ceramic waste in the concrete increases [63]. Moreover, the addition of CWP contributes to an increase in both the early and final setting times [19], as shown in Figure 14.

6.2. Physical Properties

The size of the CWP particles can range from 100 µm to 1 µm; 50% of the particles are <12 µm and 90% are <43 µm. Thus, they are suitable for use as pozzolans [7]. Moreover, the irregular and angular shape of CWP particles increased the total number of fine particles, thereby increasing the overall surface area of the mixture when CWP was used as a substitute for cement in a concrete mix [20].

The concrete permeability was reduced by 10–40% of the ceramic waste [19] (see Figure 15). The reduction in the unit weight of concrete containing CWP can be attributed to two factors: first, the level of specific gravity is lower in CWP than in OPC, and second, the hydration process in the concrete is interrupted, and voids are formed within the concrete matrix [20]. Based on Refs. [9,73], the recycled concrete mixtures exhibited a marginal decrease in density, as shown in Figure 15. However, the incorporation of ceramic tile powder can lead to a higher concrete-mixture density, resulting in an increase in the self-weight of the structure [8].

6.3. Mechanical Properties

Based on previous studies, replacing the cement content with up to 30% CWP can increase the compressive strength of concrete while reducing costs by up to 30% [74]. Furthermore, concrete mixtures using 20% CWP as a substitute for cement exhibited enhanced durability with minimal degradation in strength [14]. The incorporation of CWP into concrete decreased the compressive strength of the concrete during the early stages of curing. For example, for a curing duration of 28 days, with an increase in the percentage of CWP replacement by 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%, the strength properties (Figure 16 and Figure 17) decreased by 8.3%, 19.0%, 24.9%, and 42.8%, respectively [8,18]. However, as the curing age increased, the degree of strength reduction decreased or even went in the opposite direction. A study showed that when 10–30% CWP was used as a cement replacement, the compressive strength of the concrete increased after 90 days [20].

Concrete mixtures that include ceramic tile powder exhibited a decrease in both flexural and compressive strengths (Figure 18) [8]. The workability, retention, and strength of the mixture could be maximized using 10–20% CWP [18]. According to research conducted on fracture mechanical properties, the highest acceptable amount of ceramic powder in blended cement for effective use is 40% [43], whereas the maximum tensile and compressive strengths at the ages of 7 and 28 days were achieved with a concrete mix containing approximately 5% CWP. However, the development of early-age compressive strength slowed for concrete mixtures with CWP [37]. This may be because the use of finer ceramic particles can aid in filling the gaps in concrete, thereby enhancing its strength. Additionally, an admixture can be employed to enhance the workability of concrete when using these finer particles [75]. Therefore, ceramic waste can be utilized in concrete as a binder, fine aggregate, and coarse aggregate without adversely affecting the mechanical properties of the concrete. The compressive strength of concrete that includes ceramic waste as a replacement for cement was the highest at a 30% replacement level, owing to the high silicate content in CWP. However, when the replacement level exceeded 30%, the compressive strength began to decrease [33,76]. Sanitary ceramic additives can boost both the flexural and compressive strengths of cement by up to 20% by weight while reducing shrinkage [60].

In conclusion, the incorporation of CW into concrete mixtures can have both positive and negative effects on the properties of concrete. An increase in the percentage proportion of CWP in concrete mixtures decreases the concrete slump values, which can be compensated for by using a greater quantity of water or superplasticizer admixtures. However, the incorporation of CWP into a mixture can reduce the strength of the resulting concrete. The size of the CWP particles makes them suitable for use as a pozzolan, and their irregular and angular shape increases the overall surface area of the mixture when CWP is used as a substitute for cement in a concrete mix. Concrete permeability can be reduced by incorporating ceramic waste, and the reduction in the unit weight of concrete containing CWP can be attributed to the level of specific gravity and interruption of the hydration process in the concrete. The incorporation of CWP into concrete can decrease the compressive strength of the concrete during the early stages of curing; however, as the curing age increases, the degree of strength reduction decreases or even increases. This may be because the use of finer ceramic particles can aid in filling the gaps in concrete, thereby enhancing its strength. Therefore, CW can be utilized in concrete as a binder, fine aggregate, and coarse aggregate without adversely affecting the mechanical properties of the concrete. The compressive strength of concrete that includes CW as a replacement for cement is the highest at a 30% replacement level owing to the high silicate content in CWP. Sanitary ceramic additives can boost both the flexural and compressive strengths of cement by up to 20% by weight while reducing shrinkage.

6.4. Durability Properties

Although sufficient curing is essential for achieving good abrasion resistance in concrete, other factors are also important. These factors include the type of materials used, surface finish, hardness of the aggregate, mix proportions, bond between the aggregate and paste, and method of placement and compaction. Ceramic waste possesses advantageous qualities such as durability and high resistance to various forms of degradation, including biological, chemical, and physical factors [59]. Moreover, it can be converted into useful coarse aggregates with properties similar to those of traditional concrete-making aggregates. When used in concrete, ceramic waste coarse aggregates perform similarly to conventional concrete, making them a popular choice because of their unique advantages over other cement-based materials. The use of 30–40% CWP can optimize concrete durability, and it was demonstrated that CWP can be utilized as a partial substitute for cement to produce concrete mixtures that meet required performance standards [18]. The incorporation of CWP as a replacement for OPC demonstrated advantageous effects on both the fresh and hardened properties of concrete [37]. The use of SCMs can affect the abrasion resistance of concrete, and the incorporation of ceramic sludge may decrease the abrasion resistance. However, mixes with up to 30% waste utilization exhibited decreased drying shrinkage [31]. Ceramic waste improved resistance to aggressive agents as an aggregate [60]. By directly measuring the changes in specimen height, concrete mixtures incorporating CWP exhibited superior abrasion resistance. The same pattern was observed for high-temperature resistance, compressive strength, and tensile splitting strength [60].

CWP exhibited superior thermal resistance compared with that of a reference concrete at high temperatures. Furthermore, incorporating CWP in concrete production as a fine aggregate and cement substitute significantly enhanced the splitting tensile and compressive strengths and conferred better resistance to chemical attacks, such as sulfate and chloride attacks [6]. Concrete comprising ceramic waste aggregates has a particularly good high-temperature resistance (e.g., increased resilience to spalling) [37].

The consumption of Ca(OH)₂ during carbonation significantly decreases the alkalinity of concrete. This reduction in alkalinity damages the passive protective oxide film around steel, leading to corrosion. However, the use of CWP in concrete reduces carbonation resistance. Furthermore, ceramic polishing powders have enhanced the sulfate corrosion resistance of concrete [27].

Concrete typically contains cavities that render it porous and permeable. Incorporating CWP into concrete improves its resistance to permeability compared with concrete mixtures without CWP. In particular, the most preferable resistance to permeability was observed when 30% of the cement was substituted with CWP, showing a behavior similar to that of fly ash [25]. As the proportion of CWP increased in the concrete mixture, both the gas permeability and capillary activity decreased. These improvements exhibited a linear correlation with the pore-structure characteristics of concrete, including the total porosity and critical pore size [77]. The incorporation of CWP enhanced the permeability resistance of concrete, and the most desirable permeability resistance was observed at a cement substitution rate of 30%. The permeability resistance of concrete mixed with waste ceramic polishing powder followed a trend similar to that of concrete mixed with fly ash, with variations observed in accordance with the proportion of cement substitution [25].

The inclusion of CWP in concrete results in improved compressive strength as well as increased resistance to sulfate attacks, chlorine permeability, and corrosion [25,27]. Replacing a portion of the cement in concrete with CWP may result in a marginal reduction in strength; however, it can improve the overall durability of the concrete [41,46]. The size of the ceramic particles included in the concrete has the most significant impact on reducing the alkali–silica reaction expansion [78]. Moreover, studies have indicated that replacing 10% of the materials in concrete with CWP can result in a lower probability of corrosion [79].

7. Conclusions

In conclusion, the use of CWP in cementitious systems has gained significant attention in recent years owing to its potential to reduce waste and the environmental impact of the cement industry. This review provides valuable insights into the various properties of cementitious systems incorporating CWP, such as fresh, mechanical, and durability properties, and their impact on cement paste, mortar, and concrete. Based on these reviewed findings, the following conclusions were drawn:

• The use of CWP as a partial substitute for cement in concrete mixes can reduce the environmental impact of the cement industry by reducing the waste and carbon footprint of cement production.
• When waste CWP is used to replace cement at low proportions of up to 20%, there is a negligible negative or positive effect on the fresh, mechanical, and durability properties of the cement paste, mortar, and concrete. Moreover, a few studies have recommended substituting up to 10% OPC with CWP to produce medium-strength concrete while maintaining adequate strength and durability.
• Ceramic waste can be used as an active additive in the form of pozzolan, which can enhance the strength characteristics of concrete and increase its resistance to chlorine and sulfate attacks. However, the properties of cementitious systems incorporating CWP are affected by the type and amount of CWP used, the fineness of the CWP, and curing conditions.
• The use of CWP instead of cement can improve the uniformity and compactness of concrete, leading to an enhanced permeability resistance. This can lead to improved compressive and flexural strengths, a reduced occurrence of visible voids and surface cracks, and enhanced C-S-H production.
• The use of waste products in construction can reduce waste space, optimize waste usage, and contribute to environmental sustainability while potentially reducing manufacturing costs.

8. Future Recommendations

The deficiencies in CWP cementitious systems in concrete research are highlighted in this report. Ideas for the direction of potential future research are as follows:

• The serviceability of the concrete can be investigated via experimentation, particularly with regard to crack propagation.
• To gain a deeper understanding of the structural behavior of CWP cementitious systems in concrete, examining the behavior of the material in multi-axial stress states, stiffness degradation, and recovery is important.
• Further research is required to optimize the use of CWP in cementitious systems. This research should focus on identifying the optimal type and amount of CWP to use, as well as the optimal curing conditions.
• Further research is required to determine the viability and cost-effectiveness of CWP in cementitious systems.
• The use of CWP in cement-based composites can affect the reinforcement used in the structure, particularly in terms of potential corrosion. Further research is recommended to investigate the effect of CWP on corrosion reinforcement in RC structures.
• The development of standards and regulations for the use of CWP in cementitious systems should be encouraged to ensure their safe and effective use.